A Christian Apologist says...
“Your claim that there is no evidence for intelligence guiding and maintaining our universe is false because you would then be challenged to justify how our universe came about through mindless mechanistic processes"
Ignoring the fallacious statement that the Apologist argument must be true if I don't have an alternative, I will assume this is a convoluted way of asking for a non-religious explanation of the origin of our universe. So...
1 The Big Question - Where did our universe come from?
Short answer – we don't know for sure. There are many hypotheses, and more than one could be true. There are three major categories of hypothesis...
Universes can be created naturally
Universes can be created artificially
Our universe is one of many within a multiverse
Our universe is one of many within a multiverse
Taking these one at a time...
2 Multiverse
Here's an obvious question: where did the multiverse come from? Some say God created it. But that begs the question, where did God come from? Some say. God is “uncaused”. But if we accept the concept of “uncaused” as valid logic, then reality itself can be “uncaused” and our universe is a tiny part of that reality. The next question is "why does reality exist (whatever it is) rather than nothing?" One way to appreciate this is to consider the alternative, which is the existence of absolute nothingness. That doesn't mean empty space, that means no space, no time, no dimensions, nothingness. In other words, we are considering the existence of non-existence which is an impossible state. Hence the existence of “something” is certain because there's no alternative. That something is reality, and it could contain multiple universes, popping in and out of existence, like bubbles in a glass of champagne. Reality is therefore a collection, perhaps infinite, of everything that can ever exist, including forms and configurations that are unknown to us and perhaps unknowable.
2.1 Can The Multiverse Hypothesis be Tested?
There are currently several hypotheses to explain the arrangement of the multiverse. But can any of these be tested? The multiple universes predicted by string theory and inflation live in the same physical space (unlike the universes of quantum mechanics which live in a mathematical space). These universes can overlap or collide and inevitably must collide, leaving possible signatures in the cosmic sky which are currently being looked for.
The nature of those signatures depends on the models but is expected that any signatures will appear as "scars" in the background radiation. Another source of evidence would be gravitational waves, which would support the theory of inflation from which multiple universes could arise.
3 "The existence of intelligence"
According to at least one Christian apologist, scientific explanations deliberately ignore how intelligence could play a part in the "creation and maintenance of the universe" and thereby ignore Intelligent design.
There are several false assumptions in that statement. Far from ignoring intelligence, science has done an awful lot to explain how it works, and continues to do so. The evidence shows that intelligence requires biology, biology requires chemistry and chemistry requires physics. So it doesn't seem logical to assume the existence of intelligence before the existence of biology, chemistry and physics. It also makes the unjustified assumptions that our universe is "designed", "created", and "maintained". All of those assumptions would have to be verified before any subsequent argument about gods can begin.
There are currently several hypotheses to explain the arrangement of the multiverse. But can any of these be tested? The multiple universes predicted by string theory and inflation live in the same physical space (unlike the universes of quantum mechanics which live in a mathematical space). These universes can overlap or collide and inevitably must collide, leaving possible signatures in the cosmic sky which are currently being looked for.
The nature of those signatures depends on the models but is expected that any signatures will appear as "scars" in the background radiation. Another source of evidence would be gravitational waves, which would support the theory of inflation from which multiple universes could arise.
3 "The existence of intelligence"
According to at least one Christian apologist, scientific explanations deliberately ignore how intelligence could play a part in the "creation and maintenance of the universe" and thereby ignore Intelligent design.
There are several false assumptions in that statement. Far from ignoring intelligence, science has done an awful lot to explain how it works, and continues to do so. The evidence shows that intelligence requires biology, biology requires chemistry and chemistry requires physics. So it doesn't seem logical to assume the existence of intelligence before the existence of biology, chemistry and physics. It also makes the unjustified assumptions that our universe is "designed", "created", and "maintained". All of those assumptions would have to be verified before any subsequent argument about gods can begin.
4 The Natural Universe
Now think of universes as snowflakes or diamonds. These can occur naturally or they can be manufactured. In this section, hypotheses based on natural processes are listed.
4.1 The Black Hole Model
There is evidence that our universe began life as a singularity, and also evidence that black holes contain singularities at their centre. The implication is that black holes create new universes, and if those universes contain black holes, then more universes are created, etc. like trees in a forest, growing from seeds and producing more seeds which produce more trees. Each of these universes will appear – to their inhabitants - to have appeared from “nowhere”, and to consist of zero net energy. And that's what we observe in our universe. Nikodem Poplawski leads the research regarding this hypothesis. More detail here.
4.1 The Black Hole Model
There is evidence that our universe began life as a singularity, and also evidence that black holes contain singularities at their centre. The implication is that black holes create new universes, and if those universes contain black holes, then more universes are created, etc. like trees in a forest, growing from seeds and producing more seeds which produce more trees. Each of these universes will appear – to their inhabitants - to have appeared from “nowhere”, and to consist of zero net energy. And that's what we observe in our universe. Nikodem Poplawski leads the research regarding this hypothesis. More detail here.
4.2a The Cyclic Model
This suggests that our universe is an eternal series of big bangs and "big crunches." This is less popular nowadays because evidence suggests that our universe will keep expanding and so there will be no "crunch". But there is another version of this model... 4.2b The Conformal Cycle
Formed by Roger Penrose - this explains that our universe expands until all its matter decays into photons. At this point there is no time or distance in our universe, which is equivalent to the conditions at the start of the Big Bang, and so another cycle begins. Penrose claims to have evidence for his idea as described here.
4.3 Quantum fluctuations
According to quantum mechanics, random fluctuations can produce matter and energy out of nothingness. And that can lead to a universe.
4.4 M-Theory
This documentary from the Horizon team, is a great explanation of M-Theory...
This documentary from the Horizon team, is a great explanation of M-Theory...
4.4.1 How Could M-theory be tested?
This would first require strings to be verified. To find signs of strings in a particle accelerator would require millions of times more energy than was used to find the Higgs boson so that's going to be some years from now and $millions. But there's another way, inspired by Galileo's famous tower of Pisa experiment.
"The gravitational field couples to all forms of matter and energy with precisely the same strength, an observation that led Einstein to his theory of general relativity and is now enshrined in physics as the equivalence principle. String theory predicts violations of the equivalence principle because it involves new fields which couple differently to objects of different composition, causing them to accelerate differently, even in the same gravitational field."
Read more here
4.4.2 "Not even a theory"
A harsh critic of M-Theory is Roger Penrose, former colleague of Stephen Hawking, but now something of a rival. Penrose appeared on the excellent "unbelievable" Christian radio programme and said M-Theory... "is a collection of ideas, hopes, aspirations. Hawking's book is a bit misleading. It gives you this impression of a theory that is going to explain everything; it’s nothing of the sort. It’s not even a theory."
Now... a cynical person might wonder if Penrose's criticism is perhaps a way to attract attention to his own new book “Cycles of Time” and his own theory of creation - The Conformal Cycle theory (see 4.2b). And as it happens, Penrose's theory is very strong (although again - technically it's a hypothesis). I would put it a very close second behind M-Theory. But returning to Penrose's criticisms, it's easy to show they are unfounded. First of all - ways to test M-Theory are now emerging (see 4.4.1). Secondly, there is the mathematical basis of M-Theory which provides a lot of its strengths. This is explained by Michiu Kaku...
Actually, most string theorists think these criticisms are silly. They believe that the critics have missed the point. The key point is this: if the theory can be solved non- perturbatively using pure mathematics, then it should reduce down at low energies to a theory of ordinary protons, electrons, atoms, and molecules, for which there is ample experimental data. If we could completely solve the theory, we should be able to extract its low energy spectrum, which should match the familiar particles we see today in the Standard Model. Thus, the problem is not building atom smashers l,000 light years in diameter; the real problem is raw brain power: of only we were clever enough, we could write down M-theory, solve it, and settle everything.
Read the article here
And for even more detail on string theory and M-Theory, click here
4.5 Steady State Theory
According to steady-state theory, our universe is always expanding with a constant average density. New stars and galaxies are created at the same time as old ones disappear beyond observable limits. A steady-state universe has no beginning and no end.
4.6 The Proto-universe theory
This is also known as the "white hole" theory. While a black hole draws matter into it, a white hole emits matter. And so our universe could have emerged from a white hole.
4.7 The Holographic Universe
An extension of string theory, this states that strings (which exist in nine dimensions of space plus one of time) and which form what we perceive to be our universe, would be merely a hologram: reality plays out in a simpler, flatter cosmos where there is no gravity. More detail here
4.8 The Biocentric Universe
In 2007, a new theory of everything appeared. The biologist Robert Lanza published his theory of the “biocentric universe” which argues that our Universe takes the form that it does because we are here, and if we weren’t, it would take some other form, or possibly no form at all. In other words... We produce our Universe.
4.9 Mathematical universe hypothesis
This is a speculative theory of everything proposed by the cosmologist Max Tegmark. It argues that: Our external physical reality is a mathematical structure. That is, the physical universe is mathematics in a well-defined sense, and in those worlds complex enough to contain life with self awareness, that life will subjectively perceive themselves as existing in a physically 'real' world".
The hypothesis suggests that worlds with different sets of initial conditions, physical constants and equations may be considered equally real.
5 The Artificial Universe
To create universes artificially requires some advanced technology and a very powerful particle accelerator to create a singularity.
Within a few hundred years – if we are still around – we will have that kind of technology. So we will be able to create universes. Which means that our universe could have been created artificially, by another civilisation in another universe, who possess advanced technology.
In fact scientists have already been able to create "mini universes" in laboratory conditions. For even more information on that subject, check out...
Create Your Own universe (New Scientist)
Gordon McCabe - How to Create a Universe
Build Your Own Universe by Robert Krulwich
How to Create a Universe by Chris Lee
Within a few hundred years – if we are still around – we will have that kind of technology. So we will be able to create universes. Which means that our universe could have been created artificially, by another civilisation in another universe, who possess advanced technology.
In fact scientists have already been able to create "mini universes" in laboratory conditions. For even more information on that subject, check out...
Create Your Own universe (New Scientist)
Gordon McCabe - How to Create a Universe
Build Your Own Universe by Robert Krulwich
How to Create a Universe by Chris Lee
So when religions put forward the idea of a “creator” - they could be right. A universe created by a god or gods falls in the category of artificial universe. However, that god might be a geek in a lab coat!
6 The Simulated Universe
This is in the same category as Artificial Universe. Human begins are already able to create artificial, 3D worlds using computer simulations, usually as games where characters interact with each other within landscapes that could take years to explore. This also overlaps with the philosophical idea that reality is an illusion. It's also an idea explored in movies like The Matrix. But it's not necessarily science function. And if we are living in a simulated reality - who created it and who can modify it? Super-Geeks in another universe? God? and can we examine our universe at the "bit" level and figure out if it is just a computer simulation? More information here
7 The Supernatural Universe
There are a great number of supernatural explanations for the creation of our universe. Here are some examples:
7.1 Boshongo (Central Africa)
In the beginning there was only darkness, water, and the great god Bumba. One day Bumba, in pain from a stomach ache, vomited up the sun. The sun dried up some of the water, leaving the African land barren and empty. Still in pain, Bumba vomited up the moon, the stars, and then some animals: the leopard, the crocodile, and the turtle. After a while he got sick again, and finally vomit out some men, of which only one of them named Yoko Lima was white like Bumba.
7.2 Ancient Greece
The beginning is Chaos, a void from which emerges divine beings: Gaia (the Earth); Eros (Love); the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus. With no male assistance, Gaia gives birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilises her resulting in the Titans: Coeus, Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, Oceanus, Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, and Tethys. And so on.
In the beginning, God (also referred to as Elohim and Yahweh) creates the universe in 6 days in this sequence: light; darkness; firmament; water; land; plants; fruit; stars; the sun and moon; animals. On the 6th day God creates the first man from dust and breathes a soul into him. God places him in the Garden of Eden and creates the first woman from his rib as a companion. God then rests on the 7th day.
7.4 Ancient Scandinavian
In the beginning there was nothing and then Niflheim was made (the cold, dark, misty world of the dead) and in it a spring gave rise to twelve rivers. The ice thawed and dripped, and became Ymir, the first of the frost-giants. Then Buri emerged from the ice and he had a son named Bor, who married Bestla, a daughter of one of the giants. They had three sons, one of whom was Odin, the most powerful of the gods.Ymir turned to evil but was killed and his body eventually became the earth. His blood became the sea, his bones became the mountains, his hair became the trees and his skull became the sky with molten rocks to make the stars. His brains made the clouds. Bor's sons made people out of logs and geve them breath, life, consciousness, faces, speech, hearing, and sight. This man and woman had two children who were so beautiful they became the sun and moon.
The gods left a pathway from earth to heaven which appears in the sky as a rainbow.
7.5 Native American
A long time ago, a great island floated in a giant ocean. This island hung from four thick ropes from the sky, which was solid rock. There were no peoples and it was always dark. The animals could not see so they got the sun and put it in a path that took it across the island from east to west each day. The animals and plants were told by the Great Spirit to stay awake for seven days and seven nights but most could not and slept. Those plants that did stay awake, such as the pine and cedar and those few others were rewarded by being allowed to remain green all year. All the others were made to lose their leaves each winter. Those animals that did stay awake, such as the owl and the mountain lion and those few others were rewarded with the ability to go about in the dark. Then the people appeared.
7.6 Mayan Creation
There was only sky and the calm sea. Only the creator, the Maker, Tepeu, Gucumatz, the Forefathers, were in the water surrounded with light. Then Tepeu and Gucumatz came together; they conferred and decided to fill the emptiness. The water receded and made a void, the earth appeared and become solid; then there was light in the sky and on the earth, then the mountains and the valleys and rivers. Together, the gods attempted to create living beings so that they may be praised and venerated by their creation. Their first attempts (animals, mud man, and wooden man) proved unsuccessful because they lacked speech, souls, and intellect. In their second attempt they made the first mother and father from corn and cornmeal dough.
7.7 Australian Aborigine
In the beginning there was land, but it was a bare, flat, barren plain with no living things and no water. Baiame (The Maker of Many Things) brought the Dreamtime ancestors from under the ground and over the seas. With them, life came to the barren, flat plain. Some of the Dreamtime ancestors looked like men or women. Others looked like the animals or creatures, which descended from them. But often the Dreamtime ancestors could change their shape.
As the Dreamtime ancestors wandered over the land many adventures befell them. They met with other ancestors. Arguments often arose and the ancestors would set out on their travels again. They met strange creatures and fought battles. Each time something happened the very shape of the land changed. Hills arose, plants grew. Where the fish ancestor swam rivers appeared. When a wrong thing was done, when people, ancestors or animals did what they should not, the Rainbow snake would rush down upon them. He would either drown them, making bays and rivers, or swallow them. Then he would spit out their bones to form rocks and hills. From the Dreamtime Rainbow Snake came the feared ngaljod snake, still deadly and dangerous to those who are careless. But the Rainbow Snake is not just vengeful. To some people the rainbow Snake is Old Woman, who in the Dreamtime taught her children - humans - to talk and understand. She taught them to dig for food and what to eat.
And the sun, moon and stars? These also came to be in the Dreamtime. For one day Emu ancestor and Eagle ancestor were fighting. Eagle took one of Emu's eggs and threw it into the air. Soaring up, it burst into flames. Baiame fed the flame with wood. So the sun was made, and is made anew each day with fresh wood.
In the beginning there was land, but it was a bare, flat, barren plain with no living things and no water. Baiame (The Maker of Many Things) brought the Dreamtime ancestors from under the ground and over the seas. With them, life came to the barren, flat plain. Some of the Dreamtime ancestors looked like men or women. Others looked like the animals or creatures, which descended from them. But often the Dreamtime ancestors could change their shape.
As the Dreamtime ancestors wandered over the land many adventures befell them. They met with other ancestors. Arguments often arose and the ancestors would set out on their travels again. They met strange creatures and fought battles. Each time something happened the very shape of the land changed. Hills arose, plants grew. Where the fish ancestor swam rivers appeared. When a wrong thing was done, when people, ancestors or animals did what they should not, the Rainbow snake would rush down upon them. He would either drown them, making bays and rivers, or swallow them. Then he would spit out their bones to form rocks and hills. From the Dreamtime Rainbow Snake came the feared ngaljod snake, still deadly and dangerous to those who are careless. But the Rainbow Snake is not just vengeful. To some people the rainbow Snake is Old Woman, who in the Dreamtime taught her children - humans - to talk and understand. She taught them to dig for food and what to eat.
And the sun, moon and stars? These also came to be in the Dreamtime. For one day Emu ancestor and Eagle ancestor were fighting. Eagle took one of Emu's eggs and threw it into the air. Soaring up, it burst into flames. Baiame fed the flame with wood. So the sun was made, and is made anew each day with fresh wood.
No comments:
Post a Comment